Essay on Harlow and Ainsworth

Compare and contrast research by Harry Harlow and Mary Ainsworth on understanding attachment Harry Harlow and Mary Ainsworth undertook studies aimed at providing a clearer insight into the processes associated with attachment. Even though both Harlow and Ainsworth chose a different approach to their research, they met with some similarities. This essay will therefore seek to both compare and contrast their researches, the methods they used as well as evidence gained through their respective researches.It is I feel important to have a brief understanding as to what attachment is, and thus help to provide a perspective in regards to what the experiments being conducted are aiming to define. Attachment can be defined as â€Å"a long term emotionally important relationship in which one individual seeks proximity to and derives security and comfort from the presence of another† (discovering psychology p. 193, 2012). As such both Harlow and Ainsworth through their different approach es sought to investigate the mechanisms inherent with infant bonding.Was it due to the carer providing for their emotional and physical needs or was it more deep-seated, in that infants were more inclined to seek attachment to stimulus that met their needs, such as warmth, and softness as suggested through the researches of Bowlby (1948) (discovering psychology p. 196 ,2012) Harlow in his approach chose to base his research solely on animals, in this case the Rhesus Macaque monkey. He chose this method in part due to the fact that these monkeys have approximately ninety four percent in common with human DNA.Coupled with this was the further factor concerning ethical issues, as it would have undoubtedly raised serious concerns had he chose to conduct his experiments on human infants. His observations were conducted entirely within the seemingly harsh surroundings metered through the laboratory environment, which differed in comparison to the research conducted by Ainsworth through he r responses to sensitivity. Through his research, Harlow noticed that the monkeys grew attached to sanitary pads placed in their cage, and suspected that the monkeys boned ith them and gained â€Å"contact comfort† from them, as they were the only soft item in their otherwise harsh environment, (discovering psychology p. 202, 2012) Harlow thus surmised that the softness of the sanitary pads along with the â€Å"contact comfort† the monkeys gained from them seemed a more important factor within the infant bonding process than the presence and supply of food. (discovering psychology p. 202, 2012)In order to further investigate his hypothesis, Harlow constructed two very different types of â€Å"surrogate mothers†, one being constructed of wire which lacked any form of tactile comfort, whilst the second was made of wood with a layer of sponge and covered with a soft layer of towelling. Both â€Å"mothers† had heating supplied by a light bulb and both had a f eeding bottle inserted through the body providing the monkey with food. Through his observations and experimentation, Harlow noted the monkeys bonded with the soft bodied â€Å"mother† regardless of whether it contained a supply of nourishment or not. discovering psychology p. 205, 2012). In contrast Ainsworth‘s research focused on human infants, in part through her observations with mothers and their infants. Whilst living in Uganda, Ainsworth observed a number of families with unweaned babies, and noticed that the more responsive the mothers were to the signals of the infant, the less the infant cried and the more confident the infant was, conversely the less responsive mothers were to signals the more the baby cried (discovering psychology p. 216, 2012).Ainsworth, though different in her approach, in her case observing children and their carers in natural surroundings which differed from that of Harlow, in that he observed monkeys in a laboratory surrounding, they bo th however reached the same conclusion. Infants that feel secure, in that they have a safe base, whether this is provided by a terry towel covered â€Å"mother† or a doting parent, the tactile stimulus provided by each is of paramount importance in infant and monkey bonding. At the centre of Ainsworth’s research was what became known as the â€Å"strange experiment†, which she conducted in America, and consisted of a series of even consecutive episodes within a controlled environment. The experiment involved three people, the mother, infant and a stranger. (discovering psychology p. 217, 2012). Ethical considerations have to be taken into account once more, for unlike Harlow’s monkeys who having been bred in captivity and could not choose to opt out, or indeed be comforted as in Ainsworth’s experiments, whereby should the infant become distressed the experiment was stopped and the infant immediately comforted.Monkeys though forming a complex hierar chical society are not deemed to be as complex as humans, as such the responses to various stimuli employed by Harlow in his experiments could be deemed as being easier to interpret. In contrast to Harlow’s experiment, Ainsworth through her more closely controlled observations, and in mind that humans exhibit a more complex behaviour, she was able to delve deeper into the mechanisms associated with infant bonding, whereby she was able to define four different types of attachment. (Discovering psychology p. 204, 2012)Clearly the relevant studies undertaken by Harlow and Ainsworth had both their advantages and disadvantages. Harlow for example based his researches entirely on monkeys, within the harsh confines of the laboratory environment. The fact that Macaque monkeys share ninety four percent of DNA with human infants does not necessarily denote that their subsequent behaviour would be similar to that of human infants. â€Å"There is a need to be very careful how one interp rets this genetic similarity, for a small difference in DNA can make a huge difference in a species’ anatomy and behaviour† (discovering psychology p. 04, 2012). Ainsworth on the other hand centred her research based on observations in both Uganda and America. She chose a more sensitive approach. Her observations were of infants interacting with primary care givers and strangers and gauging their reactions. Through this process she was able to delve deeper into the mechanisms of attachment, given that not only are humans more complex as exhibited through their interactions, it also offered further opportunities for her to expand and deepen her researches.This however had its own disadvantages, for Ainsworth it seems did not factor into account the country of origin or cultural backgrounds of the infants being studied, along with the infant’s mood or indeed if the infant was used to the situation they were being exposed to. (discovering psychology p. 219, 2012). T his situation did not arise in the research conducted by Harlow, as all the monkeys had been raised in captivity which in itself ensured a more general set of expected patterns of behaviour.Ainsworth’s study does not seem to reflect any innate behaviour in the infants, whereas the researches of Harlow’s, particularly concerning the wire and terry towel covered â€Å"surrogate mothers† seem to support his theory that regardless of species, that infants show an innate predisposition in forming attachments with carers who provide for their needs. This I feel was due to Harlow being able to look deeper into this facet of infant behaviour as he was not hindered by ethical considerations as was the case with Ainsworth.It is fair to say that both researchers had their work criticised to some extent by the scientific community at large. Obvious questions having been raised as to the validity of their findings, Harlow for his sole use of monkeys and how the research corr elated to human behaviour, whereas the work of Ainsworth in her not taking into account of the differences of nationality and thus the cultural background of the infant. The primary aim of this essay was by way of making an informed comparison between the works of Harlow and Ainsworth.Were they able through their researches to show a clear insight into the mechanisms associated with infant bonding? What evidence did their different methods of approach provide? Are animals an effective means of basing a premise as to the expectations of human behaviour? Researches that have insight into our innate tendencies allow us a glimpse into the hidden world of the psyche. Whether evidence provided has come via way of animal experiments, viewed as repugnant by many, or through closely monitored experiments with human infants. The implications can have a marked effect upon other avenues of research that come to follow.Undoubtedly the work of both Harlow and Ainsworth has had a marked import upo n and allowed for a deeper understanding into the mechanisms of infant bonding. The implications of their research has provided for a basis upon which to build a yet deeper and fare wider reaching insight, not only on the various stimuli associated with infant bonding, but also in regards to how the infant develops through their life and their wider range of social interactions. (Word count 1440) References Brace, N. and Byford, J. Discovering Psychology (2012), Milton Keynes, The Open University.

Decision making Essay

The first skill set is learning how to use the four primary ethical perspectives that are used in decision making. These perspectives are called the Four Ethical Lenses. The second skill is learning to use a practical and repeatable decision-making method called the Baird Decision Model. As we become adults, one of our primary responsibilities is to decide what values and ethical priorities are the most important to us. The ethical game simulation assist with that. Mysterious Blogger and Unveiled I. D. The ethical issues that were addressed in these simulations were religion and violation of company policies. In the mysterious blogger simulation an employee hacked another employee’s personal PC only to find that the other employee was blogging about the company. Which was in violation of the company’s policy. In the unveiled I. D simulation an employee, which is a woman has issues taking a photo for an ID because it is against her religion to show her face unless amongst other women only. The decisions making steps I took to resolve these dilemmas was the being reasonable lens trying to consider what is good, fair, true, and virtuous. I also used the responsible lens trying to make an ethical choice based on my analysis. The ethical perspectives that influenced my decision making was Being Attentive: Collect the facts and notice what’s being said. Being Intelligent: Find the underlying issue and determine who’s really involved. Being Reasonable: Use the lenses to consider what is good, what is true, what is fair, and what is virtuous. Being Responsible: Make an ethical choice based on your analysis. Being Reflective: Defend your choice with careful thought and observe the aftermath closely. The way these ethical perspectives influenced my decisions was through personal and community values. Trying to understand and asses the situations, while also being fair and unbiased, so that all can feel addressed and handled in the correct manner. The way concepts from the simulation relate to the workplace is very simple and straight forward. The concepts helps one to understand the situation by analyzing and placing it in a particular lens. By doing this one has a better grasp on how to handle and resolve the issues that may take place. When in the workplace there are different races, genders and religions and these simulations touch base on in-depth issues that has definitely arose in the business environment. Having a clear process in place for evaluating exceptions ensures that all are treated equally, including the least advantaged. Conclusion With time and practice, the conflicts inherent in moral dilemmas can become opportunities for developing your ethical self. When you come across difference, remember that we all have our chosen lens. â€Å"Arguments over the â€Å"right thing to do† often stem from differing definitions of what actions are ethical† (ethicsgame. 2013). Knowing your ethical lens and how it effects ones decision making only enhances an individual’s work ethic, morals and decision making in one’s personal life.

History of DNA

This paper explains that Francis Crick and James Watson are the only names associated with the discovery of the DNA molecule; however, many scientists were involved. DNA sciences have led to a wide variety of advances in livestock development, forensic sciences. DNA is also being used in Law enforcement, paternity testing and limitless therapeutic medical uses. How did the new knowledge of DNA challenge traditional beliefs? DNA is a term that’s used in science as well as parts of daily life. People know that DNA is part of our body.The new knowledge of DNA challenges traditional beliefs in many ways. DNA has come along way in the past 50 years. Not only has it brought justice to cases left unsolved but has made a large impact in convicting criminals especially in rape and murder cases. Not only did they establish new knowledge about the universe, scientist also use DNA for cloning, establish paternity beyond reasonable doubt, to confirm the pedigrees of pets, dogs and cats, ra cehorses and livestock, also predicting and curing inherited diseases.Although are making breakthrough everyday, scientist are having difficult time locating the specific genes that causes diseases. How might it have led to the realization of multiple truths through controversy? The latest and most controversial DNA based research is stem cell science. The controversy surrounding stem cell research has both positive and negative consequences, making it an intense debate. The serious concern about the stem cell research is the human abortion that is needed to get proper material to study. The opposition to stem cell research is from religious beliefs.Another controversial research is cloning. Should cloning be allowed is the question. Most religions groups can argue that God did not intend cloning to be done. From creation to natural death Cloning is â€Å"playing God† man creating a duplicate of life from a life that already exist. Native Americans are opposed to such testing because they feel it violates their beliefs. Due to scientist digging up ancestry artifacts and profiling for scientific reasons. The plus side to scientist profiling would be tracking our ancestry knowing the truth of Native American history. History of DNA This paper explains that Francis Crick and James Watson are the only names associated with the discovery of the DNA molecule; however, many scientists were involved. DNA sciences have led to a wide variety of advances in livestock development, forensic sciences. DNA is also being used in Law enforcement, paternity testing and limitless therapeutic medical uses. How did the new knowledge of DNA challenge traditional beliefs? DNA is a term that’s used in science as well as parts of daily life. People know that DNA is part of our body.The new knowledge of DNA challenges traditional beliefs in many ways. DNA has come along way in the past 50 years. Not only has it brought justice to cases left unsolved but has made a large impact in convicting criminals especially in rape and murder cases. Not only did they establish new knowledge about the universe, scientist also use DNA for cloning, establish paternity beyond reasonable doubt, to confirm the pedigrees of pets, dogs and cats, ra cehorses and livestock, also predicting and curing inherited diseases.Although are making breakthrough everyday, scientist are having difficult time locating the specific genes that causes diseases. How might it have led to the realization of multiple truths through controversy? The latest and most controversial DNA based research is stem cell science. The controversy surrounding stem cell research has both positive and negative consequences, making it an intense debate. The serious concern about the stem cell research is the human abortion that is needed to get proper material to study. The opposition to stem cell research is from religious beliefs.Another controversial research is cloning. Should cloning be allowed is the question. Most religions groups can argue that God did not intend cloning to be done. From creation to natural death Cloning is â€Å"playing God† man creating a duplicate of life from a life that already exist. Native Americans are opposed to such testing because they feel it violates their beliefs. Due to scientist digging up ancestry artifacts and profiling for scientific reasons. The plus side to scientist profiling would be tracking our ancestry knowing the truth of Native American history.

Australian Pizza Wars (pp 687-689) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Australian Pizza Wars (pp 687-689) - Essay Example A reputable pizza marketing magazine suggests that pizza companies should begin using promotions which describe dollars off rather than percentages when using marketing promotion (clippermagazine.com, 2009). This is an aspect of consumer behaviour where they feel dollars off promotions are more incentive to buy products than through direct mailings which offer percentages off the pizza product. Currently, Pizza Hut offers reduced priced pizzas, using marketing promotion to encourage volume ordering to offset the costs of marketing, as identified by the case study. This is an ongoing pricing strategy, however Pizza Hut maintains the opportunity to use unique graphics, logos, and other consumer-oriented images to create direct mailing (or even Internet coupon offerings) which appeals to the psychographic aspects of buyer behaviour. Kurtz (2007) identifies that consumers are strongly driven toward promotional materials, in direct mailing form, which utilise well-known corporate logos an d can be entertaining at the same time. This would give Pizza Hut the opportunity to use pricing as only a portion of the marketing strategy but use innovative sales promotions, based on consumer behaviour and graphics presentation, to make their business stand out over competition. It would be unrealistic to believe that pricing is no long relevant for sales promotions, just the method by which Pizza Hut appeals to the buying audience should be altered. This could also give Pizza Hut the opportunity to sign up many different customers, through unique promotions which offer contests or similar incentives, giving Pizza Hut several niche markets to sell product. Because consumers in Australia are beginning to explore healthy eating options, these direct mailing, innovative graphic marketing tools can highlight new menu options for the healthier eating client. The case study did not provide

Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Finance - Essay Example For example, company’s current financial position and financial performance, its current level of liquidity and its current outstanding long term liabilities are those fundamental factors that influence on the share prices. Mostly, these factors are highlighted in the company’s annually issued financial statements. However, certain other factors have direct or indirect either significant or minor impact over the aggregate performance of shares in stock markets. For example, discount rates, interest rates, political situation, monetary and fiscal policy are among those leading factors that leave a considerable influence over the aggregate performance of stock markets. An overview of writing types of audiences’ variety Three types of writing serve the various stakeholders in the stock markets: informative, instructive and analytical. In the informative type of writing, an author defines certain terms relating to the field of stock markets. Besides explaining, the a uthor tries to elaborate its current and possible implications in different situations. Most of the time, such informative writing is carried out because of being a highly technical field in the structure of finance. Many shareholders and other members of stock markets are not sufficiently equipped with the understanding of basic terms and their meanings. By explaining such type of terms, the author attempts to make audience informative and members working inside the stock markets. Also, an instructive writing helps new and existing institutional and non-institutional shareholders, brokers, and other members of the stock exchange. In this type of writing, an author, who is mostly experienced expert on the topic, provides some suggestions and instructions over the trend of a particular stock. In the instructive writing, shareholders are asked to either follow a certain steps or they are given some other choices to make in order to remain a successful shareholder. Due to the complex f unctionality of stock prices and involvement of various internal and external factors affecting the share prices, shareholders prefer to follow the instructions provided by professional experts on a given stock. Furthermore, the analytical writing is the most challenging area in comparison with other sorts of above mentioned writing. Among other factors, the most significant factor, adding more challenge, is the use of complex trends and patterns in the entire process of writing an analytical piece. Such use of complex patterns in the stocks can only be understood by those stock holders who are well conversant with the basic knowledge of that particular stock. For other members, the analytical piece of writing would be of less use as its content are filled with the complex and deeper understanding of certain patterns. Additionally, various audiences such as institutional and non-institutional investors, shareholders, stockbrokers, regulators, finance students, management of companie s, may require using such writing types to serve their respective objectives. An in-depth analysis of article: Three Reasons To Own Ares Capital Use of language in this community Use of language depends on the ultimate objectives of an author. She tries to convey her own convictions, beliefs, understanding, reasons and knowledge obtained via her personal experiences are those factors that directly influence on the objectives of the author. If she beliefs that a particular company has lucrative business ahead. In order to

Analysis of Gail Tsukiyama's novel The Samurai's Garden Essay

Analysis of Gail Tsukiyama's novel The Samurai's Garden - Essay Example As highlighted by Stephen, apart from the fact that his parents were searching for a recuperating place for him, they were also protecting his younger sister from being infected by his disease. In Tarumi; Stephen is cared for by Matsu, a reticent housekeeper and a master gardener. During his continual stay with Matsu, Stephen learns Matsu’s secret and gains not only physical strength, but also profound spiritual insight. Analysis Throughout the novel there is an underlying sense of society being out of place, characterized with crazy ideas of honor and the fact that there was a war going on. This is reflected in the quote below; "When I first arrived at Tarumi, I wondered how Matsu could spend so much time in the garden. But the more time I spend here, the easier it is to see there's something very seductive about what Matsu has created." Stephen, Autumn, p. 31. The undoing stories of his new friends, war, and family eventually brings him to the beginnings of wisdom, love, hon or and loss. The basic argument of the novel is loyalty and honor found in Japanese culture. The significance of the novel’s title is attained through the complex relationship that exists between the characters and the physical adversities and conflicts they face. Gail Tsukiyama also alludes to one’s ability to build upon life as opposed to mere acceptance. Themes Coming of age By the time Stephen prepares to spend time at Tarumi, he was a mature man. However, his maturity is more revealed from the interaction with others and their impact they had on him. "When you're well again, this period of your life will simply be a quiet memory." Stephen's father, Autumn, p. 20. In this quote, Stephen father encourages Stephen of his illness and this gives him a lot of hope and hence mental maturity. The novel starts with Stephen feeling as if he has been exiled. Regardless of these feelings, he is anxious to be kind to the old caretaker of his family beach house and he and Matsu soon find a common ground. The time spend between the two makes Stephen realize that he actually has less knowledge about Matsu as a young man when his family visited the beach house on vacation. As Matsu introduces him to the surrounding environment, Stephen also becomes acquainted with Matsu’s friends who include Sachi and Kenzo. The closer he becomes with these two the more he learns about their lives and entanglements. "When some of those who had the disease were no longer wanted by others in town, they took what few belongings they had and went up into the mountains." Matsu, Autumn, p. 23. In the end, we learn as Stephen does about life, loyalty to family and friends, attachments, betrayal but most importantly is the unconditional love. The authors’ writing is crystalline and delicate as shown in her evocation of time and place. This quite tale of affection between people whose countries are at war speaks of humanity that transcends geopolitics. As witnessed in t he novel, Stephen becomes more and more ingrained in the daily lives surrounding the beach house while Japan begins to invade China. While the main characters of the novel have transverse their own difficulties and hardships; bringing every character to experience their own individual loneliness and sorrow is a true revelation that people are characterized by necessary tools to survive despite of the world. This

Global Warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Global Warming - Essay Example The solution is through the concerted efforts of various nations to help each other deal with this environmental trouble in one accord. There are international treaties or agreements that have been made by various nations to help lessen and remedy the damage done by global warming to the environment. Two international and multilateral agreements, the Montreal Protocol of 1987 and Kyoto Protocol of 1998, pay much attention to the damaging effect of world activities to the atmosphere. As cited by Morissette (1989): Its formulation was a response to a growing international consensus on the need to protect stratospheric ozone from depletion by CFCs. The Montreal Protocol is a landmark agreement in that it is the first international treaty for mitigating a global atmospheric problem before serious environmental impacts have been conclusively detected. Upon the agreement of the various countries that participated in the formation and agreement to the Montreal Protocol, the battle against global warming further developed as time went by, and with new concerns. This eventually led to a new agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol.   The  Kyoto Protocol of 1998  is an international treaty deliberated to communicate nations collectively to decrease  global warming,  and to deal with the effects of temperature increases that are inevitable after more than a century of heavy industrialization. Manne and Richels (1998) exposited that this was â€Å"to reduce their aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by at least 5 percent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.† (p.2). The nations that approve of the Kyoto Protocol concur to decrease emissions of six greenhouse gases that increase the problems of global warming. These nations are also permitted to utilize emissions trading to reach their obligations if they maintain or increase their greenhouse gas emissions. All of these activities

Organizational Culture, Employee Managemet Relationship and Motivation Essay

Organizational Culture, Employee Managemet Relationship and Motivation - Essay Example We also know that a substitute for public transportation can be something as simple as a car, taxi, and bike or even walking. Even so, how many firms are there in the industry? In Chicago area, there are only two. Their mission statement is to provide quality service but in reality, they are not. Even though transportation is a service with "peak" demand issues, CTA and Pace still can face inventory shortage.1 By this I mean that there might be not enough buses to carry passengers in peak hours, where on the contrary, many buses would be standing in the terminal in off-peak hours. Overall, public transit users become susceptible to many discomforts while coming from a point A to point B. It is a reality that most depend on the public bus service as a primary form of mobility. The amount of money spent on the trip, which is less than two dollars, almost compensates for the many discomforts. The ongoing issues and service problems are rising day to day which will jeopardize the relations between management and employees. Consequently, worker morale will impact productivity and overall competitiveness of the organization. Furthermore, it will lose its name in the community for not providing reliable service and not taking care of their employees. Everybody often thinks that government organizations are the best place to work; you may be right in terms of financial benefit and job security. However, in reality you may experience difficulties if you are looking for motivation and job satisfaction on account of poor management decisions, lack of training, organizational politics, organizational culture, and employee relationship.2 During last December employees of the pace went on strike due to failure to generously provide the labor contract to union employees. Union employees are working without a contract for last thirty months, the management never wants to negotiate in good

Create a fictional NGO and social media strategy for one of its Essay

Create a fictional NGO and social media strategy for one of its campaigns - Essay Example Breast cancer is one of the prevailing common cancers in the world that affects lives of thousands of women every year. The rate of breast cancer among developed countries is three times more than the less developed countries (Azenha, Bass & Caleffi 2011). Red is a non profit organization that aims to spread awareness in order to improve the lives of the women who are suffering from breast cancer (Zillmann 2008). In addition, the organization aims to spread awareness among the young females in schools and universities about the disease and controlling measures. Red aims to create breast cancer awareness campaign among the teenagers and women in the well developed countries because mortality rate due to breast cancer in developed countries is because of lack of quality information, regular screening and prevention methods.. Therefore, the organization aims to raise public awareness and educate patient through using social media (Breuer, Napthine & OShea 2008). People are more inclined towards social media than the other mediums, such as, newspapers, magazines, etc. Herein, to adequate the changing trend and pattern of the masses social media strategies have been adopted for the campaign to increase its publicity and raise awareness. The initial diagnose and treatment of Breast Cancer can help saving lives of thousands of women all around the world (Azenha, Bass & Caleffi 2011). Therefore, the main focus of the campaign shall remain the young females from different schools and universities (Barker, Borman & Neher 2012). It is expected that the greater knowledge of Breast Cancer shall lead to early detection of disease which can asses with the high and long term survival rate. In addition, the campaign shall raise funds for the patients that belong from low income families suffering from disease to provide reliable and permanent cure. Rate of breast cancer among developed countries is more than the less developed countries therefore ‘Red’ breast

Course Project Benefit Plan Analysis Term Paper

Course Project Benefit Plan Analysis - Term Paper Example Organization profile This report assesses and analyzes the benefit plan and design. It revolves around the profile of an organization called the Metropolitan Chicago Health Council (MCHC). This organization is engaged in the provision of valued added healthcare services, governmental advocacy and educational services. It has a wide range of hospital human resources section requirements which handles the benefit plan on behalf of the employees. The benefits that the employees accrue involve an indirect compensation designed to improve the quality of work together the personal lives of all employees. The benefits for the employees are approximately 43% of their total gross salary. Since these benefit programs are costly in nature, this report looks into their costly nature. It further acknowledges the need for a revision of these benefits programs in order to meet the current regulatory requirements and changing market needs. Benefits program The benefit program also requires developme nt of structural choices at all levels. According to Bohlander (2009), the inclusion of defined or non-defined retirement schemes in the benefit plan leads to risks and more workload in terms of resource management. The project will consider the need of considering factors to be taken into consideration when implementing the benefit plan and the reason for stakeholder involvement. Main focus is centered towards the aspect of cost of the benefit program. Solutions relating to the cost issue are cost analysis, cost description and cost minimization. Cost minimization will be the preferred solution out of the three. Cost analysis and description are equally good though cost minimization ensures maximum and optimal benefits to both the employer and employee in the short and long run. Characteristics of a sound benefit plan A sound benefit plan should be the one that values all the needs of both the employees and the employer. It should also take into consideration the ever changing mark et expectations both in the short and long term and should also meet all the regulatory requirements (Rosen, 2005). Finally, it should be cost effective meaning that cost are easily managed and kept at a minimum. Part 2: Statement of the issue The issue in Metropolitan Chicago Health Council is the need for a revision of its benefits programs in order to meet the current regulatory requirements and changing market needs. Health benefits for employees are issued by insurance companies. The criterion used in deciding the kind of benefit to be given to each employee is that of expertise and skill. Most of the benefit packages are custom made by worksite solutions. Every staff member is given a custom benefit statement that included the salary. With the increased demand in healthcare benefit schemes, the cost of implementing and sustaining the benefit plans has increased. Therefore, cost minimization is a goal in most organization. An online system is an advantageous way of minimizing c osts. This is because it

Lefeveres Concept of Translation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Lefeveres Concept of Translation - Essay Example The work of Andrà © Lefevere in translation studies is based on some very strongly held views about the nature of writing and rewriting as these activities have been conceived throughout all of human history. The quotation mentioned above summarizes one particular key theory of his, which is concerned with the relationship which exists between translation and power. This paper will examine Lefevere’s concept of translation by breaking the statement quoted above into four distinct segments, each of which will be discussed in turn: The first of the four segments of Lefevere’s quotation is quite straightforward and seems simple enough at first reading. Lefevre classifies translation as â€Å"a rewriting of an original text.† It is true that translations are â€Å"rewritings† or re-formulations of other texts, but it is questionable whether translations are always rewritings of an original text. Many post-structuralists would maintain that no text is ever truly original since every text stands in some relation to texts which have gone before. The concept of â€Å"intertextuality† indeed assumes a long chain of connections reaching back in time and across cultures so that every text that exists could be said to be a â€Å"rewriting†, or a decoding and re-encoding of other texts. Other scholars would argue that the very concept of â€Å"text† is fraught with problems because that â€Å"text† changes its nature every single time it is read by another person. What a r eader puts into a text is, therefore, from this point of view, just as important as what the writer puts in, what the translator puts in, and what the text gathers to itself through multiple other unintended connections. Looking back over world literature it is very striking that stories which authors have written over the centuries have depended on other stories, legends and â€Å"texts† that have come before.

Training Managers to be Cross Culturally Sensitive Essay Example for Free

Training Managers to be Cross Culturally Sensitive Essay Cultural sensitiveness is an important part of modern management practices in the world of business today. With the brink of globalization in the current system of life of the human society today, it could not be denied that there are many reasons for managers to adjust their system of dealing with their professional duties as major controllers of the human resources of several organizations in the society today. Gone are the days when they simply have to deal with individual-based diversity (Morgan 1998). Today, more than simple individual differences, managers have to consider cultural values of the people as well.   Being sensitive about these particular aspects is a certain leap towards development for managers of the current society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Human issues are probably the hardest issues of diversity that should be dealt with today. With the clashing of cultural values between people from different nations because of the effects of globalization within the current system of things, the past issues of human relationship had both been increased in possibilities of being resolved or even the possibilities being worsened. This could be judged through the process of management that is applied towards the values of the said diversified society of business organizations today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Being sensitive to this aspect of human development shall make it easier for the managers to have better understanding of their responsibility. Understandably, the system of management should be more concerned on how the values of the people being controlled are being provided by the authorities. This is primarily to satisfy their values and their levels of wants and demands of being respected as humans who have their own personal guidelines of being individually satisfied from their works through the ways that they are being treated by their authorities (Nelson-Neuhaus 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Why is being sensitive about the matter of culture necessary? Moving into a new social environment is a very challenging matter. First, since the destination is a new place and full of new people, critical adaptation and socialization are greatly required to be able to adjust to the change of society (Dalton 2002). One must learn the cultural pattern and social standards of the new society to be able to blend in and adapt. This idea is greatly relevant to the case of an expatriate employee of a certain company, which is already becoming a main concern for the business society. Many cases of an expatriate employee already resulted to resignation due to staggering problems brought by the socialization process (Keough, 453-459). Thus to address this social dilemma, socialization of a new person mainly an expatriate employee must be given concern especially the communication strategies that are relevant to the process.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Certainly, training managers to be cross culturally sensitive in this matter is a serious task to take into consideration. How then are the procedures supposed to be dealt with? First, the realization of diversity should be implemented thus helping the individuals concerned take full charge of their duty when the issue comes to becoming highly involved in a multicultural working environment. Next is the implementation of normalizing rules. As managers, these individuals should realize that they are in power to put an end to the dilemma that may be caused by human differences at work. Thirdly, making the managers competent enough in handling such cases of cultural diversity lies in the understanding of he said individuals of the fact that humans are indeed in different measures of both cultural and personal diversity that should be fully recognized by everyone especially at work so as to be able to establish a lot more responsive environment at work. References: Keough, Colleen M. (1998). The Case of Aggrieved Expatriate. Management Communications Quarterly. MCQ. Volume 11 (3), pp 452-459. http://cbae.nmsu.edu/~dboje/papers/ExpatriateCase.html#The%20Case. January 3, 2008. Eileen Morgan. (1998). Navigating Cross-Cultural Ethics: What Global Managers Do Right to Keep From Going Wrong .Butterworth-Heinemann. Kristie J. Nelson-Neuhaus. (2004). Successful Managers Handbook: Develop Yourself, Coach Others. ePredix, Inc.; 7th edition. Stephen H. Rhinesmith. (1996). Managers Guide To Globalization: Six Skills for Success in a Changing World. McGraw-Hill. Maxine Dalton. (2002). Success for the New Global Manager: How to Work Across Distances, Countries, and Cultures. Jossey-Bass; 1 edition.

Hydrogen Peroxide As Additive For Diesel Fuel

Hydrogen Peroxide As Additive For Diesel Fuel CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION HEAT ENGINES A heat engine is a machine whose function is to produce mechanical energy and it does so by using heat energy that is released when combustion of fuel takes place. It is classified in two main types on the basis where the combustion takes place. 1. External combustion engines also called the E.C engines: Here, as name suggests, heat energy from fuel is extracted not inside the cylinder where mechanical movement is generated but outside at different setup from where it is carried along in any medium such as air, steam or gas and passed into setup where it can be used for generating mechanical movement. Examples of this type of engine are hot air engines, steam turbines, steam engines and closed cycle gas turbine. This kind of engine is mostly used in electric power generations, ships, and driving locomotives. 2. Internal combustion engines famously known as I.C engines: It can be easily understood from the name that heat energy of fuel is extracted inside the cylinder from where mechanical movement originates. I.C. ENGINES: Here the mechanical energy is generated by force on nozzle, blades of turbines or pistons. They are arranged in such a way that when fuel is burnt inside combustion chamber the gases so produced as result of this action having very high pressure and very high temperature creates a force that directly leads to the their movement. From the development point of view we can say that J.J.E Lenior was the one who developed the first practically okay engine in 1860 and after that many different version were experimented mostly having power of around 4.5 kw and efficiency near 5%. otto-langen is given credit for developing a four stroke cycle engine in 1876. The efficiency of engine was nearly around 11%. It worked on spark ignition system. In 1892 rudolf diesel came with the compression ignition engine which was more efficient than spark ignition engines. 1.2.1 Classification of I.C. Engines. CHAPTER 2 DIESEL ENGINE 2.1 INTRODUCTION It is an internal combustion heat engine where heat energy, produced by spraying fuel on compressed air having a high temperature that is above the self-ignition temperature of fuel inside the cylinder, is converted in to mechanical work. Piston is arranged inside the cylinder that produces this mechanical work in response to combustion and expansion of air inside the cylinder. Diesel engine works on both 2 stroke and 4 stroke cycle. The main difference between diesel and petrol engine is that diesel works on the concept of constant pressure heat addition while petrol works on the concept of constant volume heat addition. For an engine to work on constant pressure heat addition concept it needs fuel which has low self-ignition temperature. And the fact that only air is compressed inside the cylinder is the reason for high compression ratio of diesel engine. They lie in the range of 14-22. 2.2 WORKING The four important processes of a diesel engine are intake of air, compression of the air to temperature that is above the self-ignition temperature of fuel, combustion inside the cylinder by spraying fuel on the compressed air and finally letting out the gases from cylinder after combustion. These four processes are repeated in cycle to make the engine run continuously. These four processes can be done with two strokes of piston (one revolution of crankshaft) or four strokes of the piston (two revolution of crankshaft). Lets understand the four stroke processes briefly because we are going to perform experiment on 4-stroke engine. During first stroke piston moves down creating space for air to come in. now when piston moves upward it compress air within the cylinder. When piston reaches at the top fuel is sprayed in the cylinder. This leads to combustion and downward movement of piston. After reaching bottom piston moves upward removing the exhaust gas from cylinder. And again when piston moves down fresh air is taken in cylinder and processes goes on. The up and down movement (linear motion) of piston is converted in to rotary motion through crankshaft which is connected to the piston. Please refer to the diagram below. 2.3 FUEL INJECTION The injection of fuel to the cylinder is very critical processes. If done with accurate timing and injection pressure it can lead to enhanced performance of the engine. The injection pressure given to the fuel by injector is typically 7â‚ ¬Ã‚ ª106 to 7â‚ ¬Ã‚ ª107 pa. The accurate time for fuel injection is when piston is about to reach the top of cylinder. When fuel is injected inside it is partly combusted as constant volume and then as piston moves down the remaining part is combusted as pressure constant processes. 2.4 PROS AND CONS OF DIESEL ENGINE The diesel engine is far more superior to the gasoline engine in terms of efficiency. They do not make noise and are very low on maintenance requirement when compared to gasoline engines. Its reliability and ruggedness is more. As fuel leads to combustion due to low self-ignition temperature no spark plugs are required which leads to lower cost of maintaining. Cost of fuel is lower, around 30% to 40% than gas engines. Another major advantage it gives over gasoline engine is by producing low waste in exhaust and cooling Major disadvantages of diesel engine are its high weight to horsepower ratio and difficulty to make them start when they are in cold weather area. CHAPTER 3 DIESEL FUEL AND ADDITIVES Any liquid that can be utilized to operate diesel engine is called as diesel fuel. Mainly derived from following four sources. Diesel fuel has been divided into three major groups by ASTM (The American society for testing and materials), which depends on the various uses of diesel engines. They are: No. 1-D for frequent load and speed changing engines. No. 2-D for engine with constant speed but high loads. No. 3-D for low and medium speed engines that operate under sustained loads. 3.1 DESIRED QUALITIES OF DIESEL FUEL Keeping in mind the functioning of diesel engine that are few important and critical qualities that a liquid must have to serve as diesel fuel. They are: 3.2 STANDARD SPECIFICATION OF DIESEL FUEL Depending upon intention of use, diesel fuel is available in various grades. Diesel fuel is a mixture of different crude oil derived substances, all with their own physical and chemical properties, such as paraffins, isoparaffins, napthenes, olefins and aromatic hydrocarbons. Diesel fuel has to work in various kinds of engine types, having difference in conditions of operation and cycles of duty, and range of technology of fuel system, temperatures of engine and pressures of fuel system. It must suit a wide range of different climates. The balanced properties of each grade of diesel fuel are important to give good performance over an extremely various situation .The most common in use guidelines for diesel fuel are given by ASTM International. ASTM specifications are created after taking into consideration, based on the wide range of experience and cooperativeness of diesel fuels producer, diesel engines manufacturer and fuel systems (and users of both), and other important officials like state fuel quality regulators. 3.3 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FUEL 3.4 DIFFERENT TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF ADDITIVES Diesel fuel properties are met and maintained by petroleum industry by taking the use of number of commercial diesel fuel additives. Fuel components and additives are different from each other. Firstly Fuel Components are hydrocarbon classes like aromatic, iso-paraffin and naphthene. They basically sum up the volume of the fuel. While Additives are added to fuel in at very less amounts, generally at the ppm level, and is of no significance fuel volume. There are different types of additives that are used to improve fuel in different ways and to overcome different problems. Following table give different types of additives and their functions. Table showing different types and function of additives. Type of Additive Function Cetane number improver Improves ignition quality by raising cetane number, better starts, reduces white smoke Lubricity improvers Improves lubricity, better injector pump lubrication Antioxidants Extend storage life, inhibit oxidation, reduce gum and precipitate formation Stabilizers Inhibit oxidation extend storage life Metal deactivators Deactivate copper compounds in fuel, thereby promoting longer storage life Pour point depressants Low temperature operability, improve cold flow properties Smoke suppressants Promote more complete combustion reduce exhaust smoke Rust preventers Reduce formation of rust in fuel systems storage tanks De-emulsifiers Used to increase the rate of water separation from the fuel CHAPTER 4 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE Having very high oxidizing capability Hydrogen peroxide (h2o2) is one of the strongest reactive oxidizer that exists. Naturally, it is synthesized as the by-product of oxidative metabolism in nearly all-living organisms. It is mainly used as a propellant in rocketry, as bleach, as an antiseptic and as an oxidizer. It has IUPAC name of Di-hydrogen dioxide and is also known as Dioxidane. Molecular diagram of hydrogen peroxide 4.1 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF H2O2: 1. Hydrogen peroxide has a Molar mass of 34.0147 g/mol 2. It appears colorless in solution and otherwise has a very light blue color. 3. H2O2 has density of 1.463 g/cm3 4. Melting point of -.43 oc. and boiling point of 150.2 oc. 5. It has more viscosity than h2o. 6.It has calorific value of 2700 kJ/kg. 7. Has dipole moment of 2.13 debye and refractive index of 1.33 (same as that of water) 8. It has specific heat capacity of 1.267 J/kg (gas) and of 2.619 J/kg (liquid) 4.2 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AS AN ADDITIVE: One important reaction of hydrogen peroxide is its spontaneous exothermic decomposition into oxygen and water. The reactions is: 2 H2O2  ® 2 H2O + O2 It has: 1. Standard enthalpy of reaction of -98.4 kJ/mol 2. Gibbs free energy of -118.7 kJ/mol 3. Change of entropy of 71 J/mol Because of this property of hydrogen peroxide it is used as propellant in rocket. Here high-test peroxide (hydrogen peroxide with concentration of around 90%) is used. The H2O2 decomposes into steam and oxygen. According to me same concept can be applied to diesel engine as well. Where adding small amount of hydrogen peroxide to the diesel fuel can improve ignition of diesel fuel inside combustion chamber by providing additional oxygen and energy when it decomposes. And steam thus produced will easily move out along the exhaust gases. CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENT PERFORMED 5.1 OBJECTIVE: To conduct experiment using 4 stroke, 2 cylinder diesel engine to study the effects of addition of hydrogen peroxide to the diesel fuel. And compare the performance of three different sample fuel where the first one is 100% diesel, second is 95% diesel + 5% hydrogen peroxide and third is 90% diesel + 10% hydrogen peroxide. 5.2 AIM: To calculate following parameters for three fuel samples: Brake power (BP). Brake mean effective pressure (Pbm) Fuel consumed (Qf) Heat energy produced by fuel (Hf) Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) Brake thermal efficiency ( Ã‚ ¨bt) Air fuel ratio (A/F) 5.3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP: Diesel engine has two cylinders and is four stroke, water-cooled engine. Dynamometer that is a rope brake type has been provided with loading sensors. Different rota-meters has been arranged to calculate flow of water to calorimeter of exhaust gas and to the engine jacket. Setup is equipped with temperature sensors, air tank and fuel tank for supply. Software has been programmed to collect data. It provides experiment performer to log-in data and store and print them. This software allows tabulation and comparison of data collected. Now lets discuss about the dynamometer mentioned above. It has brake drum, load cell, and arrangement of cooling down water. It is so coupled with the shat of the engine that load can be changed using rotation of wheel that increases the tension of the drum. Another important part of the setup is facility provided to measure the heat energy gone along with exhaust gases. Calorific measuring meter is equipped with jacket of the cooling water and shell that is in central with baffles. Water is made to flow against in indirect contact with gas that comes from exhaust and there is a rota-meter and valve to control the rate of flow of this water. So using heat can be measured that is going out as a waste with gases that comes from exhaust. There also is a provision made for getting p-v and p- Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ graphs. These works based on the sensors. Sensors that are stored in combustion chamber and aligned along the shaft that gives the output motion that has been produced by engine. These sensors provide the software the data of different pressure and angle of crank. And then we directly get graphs on the computer. But sadly these sensors have been damaged and cannot be used. So we are not able to get these graphs which are essential part of performance analysis. 5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: First of all three different samples of fuels are made. Sample 1 is pure diesel. Sample 2 is 5% hydrogen peroxide and 95% diesel. Sample 3 is 10% hydrogen peroxide and 90% diesel. All the pre-checks of the engine are conducted such as SAE 20w40 oil is filled in the oil sump up to needed level using a stick that is made specially for this purpose, data cable is connecting unit of interfering with the computer, flow of water is set accordingly through rota-meters. Filling of the fuel sample in the fuel tank. Starting engine with the help of lever that is for decompressing. Lifting this lever while turning flywheel at high speed taking use of handle leads to smooth starting of engine. Run the engine for like say 2 min before any thing to be done because it needs time to stabilization. Now loading of the diesel engine is done with help of dynamometer. Here we will try and set four different loads for a sample of fuel. Firstly zero kg then eight kg after that 16 kg and finally 24 kg. Readings are noted down or you may say logged in the computer for every load and saved. After completion of the experiment for fuel 1 same procedure is followed for other two samples. After the readings and information of all samples are collected stop the engine only after reducing load on engine. Finally close the supply of water that is used for cooling and stop the fuel supply. 5.5 IMPORTANT SPECIFICATIONS OF ENGINE: 14 horse power engine Diameter of bore is 87.5 mm Length of stroke is 110 mm Length of arm acting on dynamometer is 0.165m Density of air is taken as 1.21 kg/m3 Gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2 Surface area of piston is 6.01*10-3 m2 Volume swept by cylinder per second is .0165 m3/sec 5.6 FORMULAE USED: Please note formulae have been written after calculating all constant and known values as specific numerical constant so as to get clear picture of what and how different variables affect the values of performance indicators. And also that following set of formula apply for sample 1 only and similarly formulae for sample 2 and 3 were calculated separately. Brake-power (in kw): m is mass of load acting on dynamometer (kg) N is revolution per minute of shaft Break mean effective pressure (in N/m2): Fuel consumed by engine (in kg/s): X is volume of fuel consumed (in ml) T is time taken to consume X ml of fuel (in seconds) Air fuel ratio: Qa is flow rate of air intake by engine (in m3/s) Brake specific fuel consumption (in kg/kw-s): Heat supplied by fuel (in kw): Brake thermal efficiency (in %): Volumetric efficiency (in %): 5.8 ANALYSIS AND COMPARISION OF PERFORMANCE: GRAPH: LOAD VS BRAKE POWER From above graph we can say that all the 3 samples of fuel are able to give same brake power output. This helps us to confirm that 2 experimental fuel are able to provide same output as that provided by original fuel. GRAPH: LOAD VS BSFC From the graph we can observe that sample 2 has higher BSFC then other 2 samples at low loads. But as the load is increased sample 2 has slightly lower BSFC than other two samples. While sample 3 gives you lower BSFC at low loads and same BSFC as the sample 1 at higher loads. GRAPH: LOAD VS BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY From graph above, it is clearly visible that sample 2 and sample 3 provides higher efficiency than the original sample 1. And it is also important to note that there is not much vast difference between efficiency of sample 1 and sample 2 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION The experiment was performed on the 4-stroke, vertical, 2-cylinder diesel engine. It was maintained at constant rpm of 1498 and 50 ml of fuel was consumed at each load. Four load conditions were decided to perform experiment on 3 samples of fuel keeping in mind the capability of engine. The 4 conditions were 0, 8, 16, and 24 kg. The positives that we can take from the experiment performed are that we are able to produce same output result in terms of output power at output shaft though the heating value of sample fuel 2 and 3 are lower than that of sample 1. This is the reason we are able to show increase in brake thermal efficiency obtained by sample fuel 2 and 3 than that obtained by sample 1. But the most important conclusion that I think from the experiment is that there is slight decrease in BSFC of sample fuel 2 at high load. Due to limitation of experimental conditions we cannot check the result for load above 25 kg. I believe that this result has originated from the fact that hydrogen peroxide provides that additional oxygen and energy when it decomposes exothermically to give steam and oxygen. The thing that hampers the proposition of hydrogen peroxide as an additive for diesel fuel is its storage problem. A research is needed on the feasibility of storing hydrogen peroxide separately than the diesel in engine and spraying it through different injection system than that of diesel because there could be possibility when hydrogen peroxide in the fuel tank it may decompose itself without aid of compression temperature in combustion chamber in long-term storage. The cost factor also needed to be taken into account. The other few things that are kind of inconclusive and needs further research on them are how does steam produced by decomposition reaction affects the engine on long run and what amount of hydrogen peroxide is optimum for the engine.

Role of the Media in Democracy

Role of the Media in Democracy What do you understand by the concept of democracy? What role, if any, does the media play in a democracy? Discuss these using examples from different parts of the world. According to Almond Verba (1989) democracy this ideology was raised after World War Two from Western countries such as European countries and especially at the same time United States was rapidly expanding society through the movement towards technology, great uniformity of rationality of organisations in the world, and it made the direction of political change less important. Moreover, Amartya Sen (1999) argued that the ideology of democracy was originated in ancient Greece, back to two millennia ago, there were piecemeal efforts at democratisation, the idea of democracy was put into practise before it collapsed and replaced by authoritarian form of government. He continued explained that democracy cannot be identified with majority rule as in democracy should be defined as a complex demand including of respect the voting rights and election results, in a way it also requires protection of liberties, freedoms, legal entitlements, rights to freedom of speech, uncensored distribution of news and fair feedback. Besides that, the concept of democracy give a general meaning of legal and equal practise political self determination which hold within social, economic and cultural condition. It is a system of government that is formed through a fair voting system by all eligible citizens either directly or indirectly vote to elect their representatives. However, this is a long process which needs to take time to emerge, strengthen democracy, and gradually develop as a working system of governance. There are a lot of influential and factors causes the rise of democracy in different parts of the world, for instance, time changes, financial economic, educations, advanced technology and so on. Nevertheless, media does play a critical role and a big part in shaping democracy due to the invention of radio, television and especially the internet. Apparently media is an important mechanism to deliver information to the people in terms of political, social and economical current activities happening around our surroundings and the world. The form of news can be current issues and it also can be in a form of forewarned people about future problems and issues so that the people are aware of all kinds of activities happening. This is the main function of old media, one-way communication to the public. On the other hand, the introduction of internet has changed into two-way communication between the public and media, which has become the global attention today. The media are becoming more pervasive nowadays than they were back to few decades ago. The availability has expanded and usage of mass media are facts of everyones life. People nowadays are bombarded with all kinds of inform ation everyday more efficient than back times, and media is part of everyones life. Meanwhile, it enhances the public awareness of what is happening within and outside the country. Hence, people have become more knowledgeable than living without consuming media, it can strengthening democracy due to making comparison with the other regions or countries influential. According to Mccombs and L. Shaw et al., (1997 cited in Swanson and Mancini, 1996), summing up the importance of mass media especially the television news, continue explained that citizens voting decisions reflect impermanent public opinions instead of historical allegiances has eventually led to a struggle political situation depending the independent media establishment such as who in charge of the agendas of campaigns. In many ways, political system has a strong bond depending on the media just like how the media has to depend on politics too. Media has been always present, however, it is simultaneously always been blamed and praised from the people for many aspects of political issues. Nevertheless, the role of government is essential in democracy, and then media has a role to inform the public about governments action, in fact they should also analyse and give opinions without bias on their significance. Media might not be able to report news hundred percent without bias but they should try to minimise the biasness when reporting news. Journalist will investigate stories, reveal wrongs and raise issues that should be addressed. Hence, media is justified to play a big role in democracy as a balancing factor to enable the public aware of governments movement to enable good government. However, media industries can play a role in democracy but it is not easy to achieve. There are certain factors suc h as ownership power, profitability purpose, reduce risk and so on that will influence the role of media. So, further analysis of three countries, United States, China and Malaysia about their media system. Basically the media industries in United States can be divided to three types, media conglomerates, mainstream media and a lot of small media companies. Focus on the media conglomerates, there are six media giants in the United States which is the category of media conglomerates, major media companies. The Big 6 are GE, News-Corp, Disney, Viacom, The Warner and CBS currently in control of 90% of what the people read, watch and listen to. Back to 1983, 90% of American media was approximately owned by 50 companies but now the Big 6 owned the same 90% American media. Their international revenues are increasingly a large percentage of the income of these media companies. The implications of major media companies is that they has the ownership power to control over the media content as in their aim is to maximise profits. Corporate ownership of media is a factor that influenced media role. The news information will avoid biases of owners, advertisers and journalists themselves. Moreover, commercial advertising causes commercial media sending information to meet expectations of people due to market competition. These major media organisations has the power to influence media performances, thus, media democrats can considered not exist in the United States. In the United States, the press was assigned the label of the watchdogs of democracy and also fourth estate based on the American tradition of journalism due to media often exposing the act of offence of the power holders within a democratic system. (Jebril and Stetka et al., 2013 cited in Waisbord, 2000). Media in United States often been expected their press freedom would rank top in the world but in year 2013, press freedom of United States was ranked at the 32th in the Press Freedom Index from Reporters Without Borders whereas actually Finland has got the first rankings press freedom for the third year, it has distinguished as most respects media freedom in the world. Therefore, media in United States is always been a lot lower than people thought or expected. US has ranked in a lower numbers for a few years especially during the period when Bush Administrations War on Terror. However, after Barrack Obama takes over, it was looking better but in the recent years. American media has a lot of issues in these recent years. Problems such as scandals about media manipulation, plagiarism, political propaganda, sliding profits, lower audiences and so on, those issues challenge the reliability, inaccuracy and bias in the United States media industry. It made it very difficult to let the public to obtain an open and objective view of many issues in terms of cultural, economic, political and military activities that involve in the United States. Media control and free press is crucial for balancing and functioning democracy, because if it is not truly free, there will be manipulation and concentration of views, that will undermine the democracy system. On the other hand, China has a different media system, China is authoritarian capitalism but becoming less authoritarian because their economy is booming. Zhao (1998) argued that during Mao Zedongs administrations, the media in China underlies a Party principle, it means that news media has to accept the Partys guiding ideology, propagate the Partys programs and policies, and the Partys leadership, follow the Partys organisational and press policies. Later on, he continued explain the Chinese media was reformed in the late 1970s and practices the Cultural Revolution, the objective from media has changed in the new era of economic openness and reform as in reporters began to report news in a more truthfulness, timeliness and broadened the scope of reporting news to the people. In year 2013, China is ranked at 174th in the Free Press Index from Reporters Without Borders. China is placed at such a low rankings because of several factors, internet censorship, action of extrajudicial arrests and controlling news and information system by the government. There is a special case in China which is the government restrict the people to use Google, Facebook, Twitter, and etc. These websites are very popular in the world but they are not available to access in China because of governments restriction and law enacted. However, China has their own version of Google that is called Baidu, and a social website in Chinese language called Weibo, these Chinese version of websites are popular and widely use among the citizens in China. Hence, it can be argued that media in China has limited freedom reporting news although they has gone through a market reformation. Chinese is still at the stage of struggling for democratisation and mass media in China is not transparent, hen ce, the media in China does not play a good role in democracy as well. Besides that, Malaysia is the next country chosen as example to further explain and compare with the concept of media democracy. Case (2012, p.26) argued that Malaysias political system always been labelled as a newly contested semi-democracy. Moreover, Mauzy (2006) continue explained that Malaysia has the characteristics of hybrid regimes which means it is a combination of both democratic traits and authoritarian features in Malaysian government system. Besides that, Heufers (2002, p.40) mentioned that Malaysia is steadily moving forward and strengthening democracy. Thus, Malaysia is a semi-democracy country, the mass media in this country has gained attention from the public because people tend to seek for transparency of media but then the media is under government controlled. Malaysia is moving forward to democracy as mentioned by the scholar Heufers, but the media in Malaysia is not transparency at all and there is no freedom of press. It can be described that media works for the government, every published press will not revealed the truth against the government or even the government servants. According to George (2006, p47) argued that the Malaysia government uses licensing systems to control over media industries by require publishers to apply annual permits, in fact, journalists and publishers can be cancelled or suspended publications licenses through state force. Wang (1998) also mentioned the Minister for Home Affairs using The Printing Presses and Publication Act to gain absolute control over the mainstream media in Malaysia. When the media is under government control, published news and information are not credible, then, media does not play a role in democracy as a balancing factor to ensure the action of government. The three countries chosen to discuss above, United States, China and Malaysia, they represent democratic, authoritarian and semi-democracy systems of government. Mainstream media in these countries are either dominant by big organizations or control by government. Subsequently, new media in these countries have a freedom to publish news except for China which has restriction in access to some websites. United States and Malaysia are free to have online journalisms publish news, internet blogging and freedom to express in social websites. In conclusion, media has the role to play in democracy to provide information to the people, analyse and give opinions about politically, economically and culturally activities without bias. That is the journalism professional standard role to fulfil public needs. But it is very difficult that media to achieve to play a role in democracy and free from interferences. Every country in the world has their own government and media system, it depends on how the government system works. No matter media industries are private own or government owned, the ownerships have their intentions to gain interest for themselves and put public at the second.

CHINA TAIWAN :: essays research papers

Taiwan opposition leader James Soong urged the island's independence-leaning leaders to take advantage of his "bridge-building" trip to mainland China to seek cross-strait peace. "People from both sides of the strait are longing for peace ... Mainland leaders have also showed sincerity in improving cross-strait relations," Soong told reporters at the airport upon return from his nine-day visit to China. He added Friday that China had announced a number of concrete steps to boost bilateral ties, including a promise to push for direct air links in 2006. "Peace is in our own hands," said Soong, chairman of the People First Party. Pushing for independence for Taiwan, he warned, could destroy peace prospects. China sees Taiwan as part of its territory awaiting eventual reunification since they split at the end of the civil war in 1949 and has regularly threatened to invade if the island moves towards formal independence. Soong also said Taiwan's President Chen Shui-bian had "promised not to promote independence through constitutional amendments". He was referring to Saturday's elections, in which voters were to elect a 300-member National Assembly to decide on a package of constitutional reforms, including whether referenda could be used to amend the constitution. Beijing has opposed referenda, which it sees as a step Taiwan could take toward declaring formal independence. Saturday's poll is seen as a litmus test of support for the island's independence-minded leaders and the opposition, who favour closer ties with China, following recent visits there by two opposition leaders. Soong's trip followed the historic visit to China by Lien Chan, chairman of the main opposition Kuomintang party. Both Lien and Soong said their trips were meant to bridge differences between the two rival governments and pave the way for peace talks. Beijing also agreed to simplify visa application procedures for Taiwanese and to offer incentives to Taiwanese studying on the mainland, according to a joint statement released after Soong's talks with China's Hu Jintao. Hu and Soong also pledged to push for cross-strait peace talks under a "two sides, one China" principle and oppose independence for Taiwan. President Chen, who stresses Taiwan's independence and sovereignty, immediately rejected the peace overture. "Should we accept the 'one-China principle', Taiwan would be Hong Kong-ized and become part of the People's Republic of China, a scenario which is by no means acceptable to the 23 million people in Taiwan," Chen said Thursday.

The Issue of Age Discrimination in America Essay -- Age Discrimination

The Issue of Age Discrimination in America The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) protects against age discrimination under Title VII. Specifically, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), which was passed in 1967 by congress, covers discrimination against employees who are 40 or more years old. This topic should be a big concern for employers, since the number of elderly workers is increasing as the baby boomer population matures. It is estimated that as many as twenty-percent of the claims filed with the EEOC are for age discrimination. Also, age discrimination settlements can be considerably higher than typical discrimination cases. Upon research, the average award amount between 1955 and 1988 was $219,000. (www.ama.net). For this reason alone, employers should take care of how they handle their aging workers. As mentioned above, the EEOC is responsible for enforcing the age discrimination regulations, including the ADEA of 1967. This regulation is in effect supposed to â€Å"promote employment of older persons based on their ability rather than age; to prohibit arbitrary age discrimination in employment; and to help employers and workers find ways of meeting problems arising from the impact of age on employment.† (www.eeoc.gov). The ADEA presides over the boundaries for age discrimination in all aspects of employment. It not only protects against discrimination for employees, but job applicants as well. Even job advertisements must not include age d...

“Ethics in Policing” Essay

In The Ethics of Policing, John Kleinig presents a broad discussion of the ethical issues that overwhelmed existing police organization and individual police officers. This debate is set surrounded by others that bring in the reader to basic approaches at present in support among moral philosophers (social contract, neo-Kantian and utilitarian–though thought of the recent efforts to widen virtue-oriented ethical theories is regrettably absent) and to many of the significant questions posed in the swiftly growing subfield of practiced ethics (such as whether professional ethics are constant with or in clash with so-called â€Å"ordinary† ethics). The discussions are consistently even-handed, broad and extraordinarily rich in detail. Kleinig sets out typologies of the kinds of force used by the police as well as variety of dishonesty in which they occasionally engage range of distort exercise, alternative actions for holding police responsible, and the like. He offers wide-ranging debate of the role and history of police codes of ethics, the changes made on the personal lives of police, and the challenges to police management facade by unionization and confirmatory action. In short, this book is much more than a directory of police ethical issues with reference for their solution–it is that, of course, but it is also an beginning to professional ethics in general, a articulate staging of important existing moral theories, a outline of the key legal decisions affecting police work, and a rich representation, both understanding and essential of the police officer’s world. Kleinig concentrates on his topic with a large idea of ethics, one that runs from meticulous problems (such as police judgment and use of force), through common problems (such as the ethics of misleading tactics and the nature of dishonesty), to deliberation of the effects of police work on police officers’ moral fiber (such as the regrettable inclination of police to distrust and hostility), all the way to organizational difficulty (such as those about the arrangement of answerability and the status of whistleblowers). Right through his rich and caring conversation, it seems as if the difficulty of ethical policing is just that of how the police can morally carry out the job they are assigning and putting into effect the laws they are furnished to implement. Kleinig considers that many of the ethical problems facing the police have their cause in (or are at least supported and assisted by) the trend of police to appreciate their own role as that of law enforcers or â€Å"crime-fighters. † This promotes over trust on the use of force, predominantly lethal force and enhances police officers’ sense of hostility from the society they are sworn to serve. Furthermore, this self-image makes police doubtful of, hostile to, and commonly unhelpful with police administrations inspired programs such as â€Å"community policing†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat aim to redesign the police into a more comprehensible organization. Amusingly, the police self-image as â€Å"crime-fighters† continue in the face of practical studies showing that law enforcement per se, the engaging and catching of criminals, takes up only a small number of police officers’ work time. Much more time is in fact spent by the police doing things like crowd and traffic organizing, dispute resolution, dealing with medical tragedies, and the like. Consider Kleinig’s argument of police dishonesty. Kleinig takes up Lawrence Sherman’s view that allowing police to agree to a free cup of coffee at a diner starts the officer on a slippery slope toward more serious graft because, deliberating he has accepted a free cup of coffee makes it difficult for the officer to stand firm when a bartender who is in action after legal closing hours presents him a drink–and this in turn will make it harder to resist yet more serious attempts to bribe the officer to not enforce the law. Sherman then suggests that the only way to fight corruption is to get rid of the kinds of laws, first and foremost vice laws that provide the strongest lure to corruption of both police and criminals. In opposition to Sherman’s view, Kleinig believe sthat of Michael Feldberg, who argue that police can and do differentiates between minor gratuities and bribes. Kleinig consent. Kleinig takes corruption to be a topic of its motive (to misrepresent the carrying out of justice for personal or organizational gains) relatively than of particular manners. This is a nice difference that allows Kleinig to detach corrupt practices from other ethically problematic practices, such as taking gratuities–of which the free cup of coffee is an example. Quoting Feldberg, Kleinig writes that â€Å"what makes a gift a gratuity is the reason it is given; what makes it corruption is the reason it is taken† (Kleining, 1996, 178). Gratuities are given with the hope that they will encourage the police to frequent the organization that give them, and certainly, the police will often stop at the diner that gives them a free cup of coffee. Thus, Kleinig follows Feldberg in philosophy that recieving coffee is wrong because it will tend to draw police into the coffee-offering business and thus upset the democratic value of even-handed distribution of police protection. Kleinig takes up the question of entrapment by first allowing for the so-called subjective and objective advances to determining when it has occurred. On the subjective approach, entrapment has happened if the government has rooted the intention to commit the crime in the defendant’s mind. So implicit, the defence of entrapment is overcome if the government can show that the defendant already had (at least) the outlook to perform the type of crime of which he is now blamed. On the objective approach, anything the intention or disposition of the real defendant, entrapment has arised if the government’s contribution is of such a character that it would have made a usually law-abiding person to commit a crime. Kleinig condemns the subjective approach by indicating that the behaviour of a government cause that constitutes entrapment would not do so if it had been done by a classified citizen. Thus, the subjective approach fails to clarify why entrapment only relay to actions performed by government means. For this grounds, some turn to the objective approach with its stress on improper government action. However, as Kleinig skilfully shows, this approach experience from the problem of spelling out what the government must do to, so to converse, â€Å"create† a crime. It cannot be that the government agent was the sine qua non of the crime since that would rule out lawful police does not entice operations; nor can it be that the government agent simply made the crime easier since that would rule out even undisruptive acts of providing public information. The objective approach seems based on no more than essentially controversial intuitive judgments about when police action is excessive or objectionable. The reason is that this account is susceptible to the same opposition that Kleinig raised in opposition to the subjective approach–it fails to explain why entrapment only relates to actions carried out by a government agent. Certainly, the problem goes deeper because Kleinig’s account supposes that government action has a particular status. As Kleinig point to, the same actions done by a private citizen would not comprise entrapment. It follows that actions done by a government agent can dirty the evidentiary picture, while the same actions done by a private citizen would not. But, then, we still need to know why entrapment refers only to actions carried out by government agents. To answer this, Kleinig must give more power to the objectivist approach than he does. When it does more s Kleinig notes but fails to integrate into his account–the government â€Å"becomes a tester of virtue rather than a detector of crime† (Kleining, 1996, 161). Indeed, much practical crime fighting is wrong because it does not so much fight crimes as it fights criminals, taking them as if they were an unseen enemy who need to be drawn out into the unwrap and take steps. As with corruption, it seems to me that Kleinig has measured entrapment with active criminal justice practice taken as given and thus, by default, as not posing a confront to ethical policing. Kleinig suggests that as an alternative of law enforcers or crime-fighters, police ought to be consider and think of themselves–as â€Å"social peacekeepers,† only part of whose task is to put into effect the law, but whose larger task is to remove the obstruction to the even and pacific flow of social life. (Kleining, 1996, 27ff) Kleinig’s disagreement for significant the police role as social peacekeeping has three parts. The first part is the gratitude that, while social agreement theories lead to the idea of the police as just law enforcers, the information is that we have (as I have already noted) always likely the police to play a larger role, taking care of a large diversity of the barrier to quiet social life. The second part of the quarrel is that the idea of the police as peacekeepers, in totaling to equivalent to what police essentially do, reverberates adequately with practice, in exacting with the idea of the â€Å"king’s peace,† the organization of which might be thought of as the predecessor of modem criminal justice tradition. Kleinig thinks will flow from this preconceiving of the police role: a less confused, more helpful and pacifying relationship between the police and the society; a compact dependence on the use of force, particularly lethal force, to the point that force is sighted as only a last alternative among the many possessions accessible to the police for eliminating obstacles to social peace. The very fact that police are armed (and dressed in military-style uniforms) for law enforcement makes it just about overwhelming that they will be used for crowd and traffic control. Subsequently, if a small group of persons is to keep a large, volatile and potentially dodgy group in line, it will surely help if the small group is armed and in distinguishing dress. As for the other jobs allocated to the police, it must be distinguished that these jobs are not generally executed by the police for the community as a whole. Middle class and wealthier folks do not turn to the police for dispute resolution or help in medical emergencies. Ignored in this way, the poor call on the police when there is problem and reasonably so. The police are at all times there, they make house calls, and they do not charge. Practices that outcome from our negligent treatment of the poor should scarcely be lifted to normative position in the way that Kleinig in cause does by speaking of what â€Å"we† have allocated to the police. Only some have had the authority to assign the police these additional jobs, and even those influential few seem more to have deserted the jobs on the police than considerately to have assigned them. Most significantly, however, distinguishing the police as peacekeepers has the trend to cover over what is still the most important truth about the police, the very thing that calls for extraordinary good reason and for particular answerability, namely, that the police have the ability to order us around and to use aggression to back those orders up. For example, when Kleinig takes up the police arguments that they should be treated like proficiently and thus standardize themselves, Kleinig objects only on the position that â€Å"It is uncertain whether police can lay claim to such focused knowledge† not available to lay persons as renowned professions, such as medicine and law’ do. (Kleining, 1996, 40) Similarly, in explanation why police may correctly be focused to civilian review boards, Kleinig says that â€Å"the police provide a society service at a cost to the society† and thus ought to be answerable to the public they serve. (Kleining, 1996, 227) The police are precisely subject to remote review to a level that the local authority company is not, and the grounds are the particular authority and authority the police have and the suitably tense relation involving that power, essential as it is, and the free public it both defend and threatens. Conceivably, after all, the cops are right in opinion of themselves as law enforcers and crime fighters. Reading John Kleinig’s book is an extremely good way for anyone to learn just how uncomfortable that situation is. References Kleining, John (1996) The Ethics of Policing, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Marriage relationships are increasingly more equal

It is avowedly that marriage relationships argon becoming progressively liken, but to an extent. Since the early 1900s the stereotypical housewife routine has changed, dramatically. This allowed work force to try out, on what would take up been seen as Women jobs much(prenominal) as childcare, readying and cleansing, and also women to do some workforce jobs which were mainly behind the computer jobs and more(prenominal)(prenominal) vacant time, women also had a say in purchases and m matchlessy matters, something which would lease not been doable without this experience in change of grammatical gender roles. materialisation and Wilmott were functionalist sociologists who came up with a possible action that Marriage roles are becoming more equal. They called this the Symmetrical family, this is when the husband and wife beat similar roles and share tasks and work equally. They claimed to have proven this theory by interviewing 1700 or more women and only if asking th em one question which was Did youre husband contribute to housekeeping at all this week?Ann Oakley criticised teenaged & Wilmots methodology as her personal views were passing diverse to theirs. She concluded it could vary from a miniscule to a large amount, making it unfair. The people who get interviewed are only allowed to answer Yes Or No this makes it really grievous to know as no additional details are included much(prenominal) as when did they do this, how often do they do this and how they contribute to the change in stereotypical gender roles.After Ann Oakley Criticised Young & Wilmots theory, she made her own theory. She divided her questionnaires into quadruple groups, which consisted of Housework, Childcare, Decision making and leisure.Ann Oakley states that women are progressively becoming more equal to their husband, but they are unfortunately still doing 70% of all housework. This portrays that, women are more equal in decision making, work and the outback(a) life but still in their stereotypical gender role at home, with housework and child care.She also states that men only contribute to nice, easy, clean and pleasurable things within the household and childcare such as playing with the children, purchasing them toys or gifts, sending them to parks, washing one weighing machine once in a whilst and whitethorn also cook occasionally. However, they never have the appearance _or_ semblance to be cleaning up the house, ever-changing dirty nappies or even cleaning up the childrens sick or mess. These are all unfortunately left for the housewife to do.Overall, Ann Oakley has successfully proved that Young and Wilmott are improper in their conclusions on marriages becoming more equal within the household, because of their imprecise interviewing techniques on collecting data. However, research shows that marriages are progressively becoming more equal in the household, even though it is increasing slowly.

Comparison Of Smes Between China And German Economics Essay

Nowadays the humanity scotch administ proportionalityn has entered the epoch of jut revealetary competition. Economic competition is farthest to a commodiouser extent intense than any old diachronic period, and its strength is twist re entirelyy fast, so some(prenominal) an(prenominal) SMEs face a crisis and a bad secernate of affairs.The Nobel Laureate in sparing sciences, Stiglitz ( cite? ) pointed stair forward that the current globalisation turn is driven by the involvement of inter depicted object companies, and it has exacerbated the inequality in the universe. When opposed aspirations enter bingle landed estate, they frequently destroy topical anesthetic rivals and crush down the aspi balancens of local SMEs to develop their subject industry.Chinese SMEs construct 95 % of the inbuilt pulp of the national endeavors, and over 3/4 of the urban employed population operative in SMEs. Statisticss standardisedwise show that SMEs in china be the slig htly dynamic grant of its stinting, involve about 65 % of the patented engineering, and more than(prenominal)(prenominal) than 75 % of the engineering figure. 80 % of new trades argon developed by SMEs. king-size bear upon overly comes from the phylogenesis of SMEs. in that respect is no uncert personalty the hereafter of chinawargon s economical dodge to a greater extent conditional on the increment of SMEs.Stiglitz besides pointed out that un handicraft is more harmful than waste of imagings, it is likely to destruct the encompassing market economic arrangement ( mention ) , spot the engine of making new occupations is SMEs.So, how atomic number 50 SMEs to stew with the ch onlyenges of globalisation? Possibly the German companies can hand over us with the best illustration. The German professor of pedagogy, Herman Simon started to go the German endeavors because he was asked such(prenominal) a inviolable job when he sing Harvard teleph nonpargonil line aim Ger some s top viosterol endeavors, in the universe ranking man initiation, be non outstanding, so how can Germany go the universe top exportinger for such a long clip, and how did Germany go a universe economic heavyweight.The ten old ages of research findings surprised him.The pilot light German exporters every piece good as the pillar of the economic carcass is non those familiar companies like Siemens, Bayer, Mercedes-Benz, and so on, that some unk right offn SMEs such as Brita, Hauni, and Xilabulan. They focus on a quaint industry, but far more in movement in the external market than any some different(a) name, such as production of Brita H2O filters which now have 85 % of the universe market. Most of these SMEs ar non familiar to media and public, but they argon the true genius exporters.There argon one Cs of those stealth title-holder companies in Germany. Do non believe that they are now superficial size concerns. For illustration, in the production of tropical weight provender, the Tetra company owns 60 % of the planetary market parting, .Although this is a niche merchandise, it has a turnover of 6 one thousand zillion USD, and Tetra have wholly-owned subordinates in more than cytosine states in the universe.The primer why these SMEs in Germany are itsy-bitsy-known to people, is that they are largely non able and non leaveing to pass 1000000s in self-promotion, or they even intentionally avoid clash with the media in order to avoid excessively many vex because it might increase the underframe of rivals and impersonators.In drumhead, for the developing Chinese SMEs, by comparing the endeavors bill, commition public presentation, monetary mediation and social run, we should be able to sum up the differences between the 2 states and seek to derive experience for mainland mainland China.MethodologyWill go for the methodological analysis of comparative degree surveies, statistic analyzing, inductive logic. explor e interrogativeDifferences of endeavors standard, counsellor public presentation, monetary intermediation and social gains between China and German.a . Enterprises standard comparative survey between China and Germany.Standard of the Germans SMEsAt present, the familiar touchstones for SMEs in Germany are the new commissariats for SMEs criterion introduced by the SME interrogation Center in Bonn and the European alliance in ii hundred3. The result of Standard Research from SME Research Center in Bonn is shown in Table 1Table 1 The SME criterion of Germany and the European Uniona?menage sizeEmployees ( No. of individual ) everlasting(a) saless(prenominal) per class ( 10,000 of EURO ) rigid sizeEmployees ( No. of individual )Gross saless per twelvemonth ( 10,000 of EURO )As bushelss ( 10,000 of EURO )Micro& lt 9& lt 200& lt 200 humiliateda9& lt 100 beautiful1049& lt 1000& lt 1000 intermediate100499100 cholecalciferol0 modal(a)50249& lt 5000& lt 4 three hundred co ck-a-hoop(p)a?500a?5000SMEsa250a5000a4300Standard of the Chinese SMEsaChinese SME criterion is introduced by the National organic evolution and Reform guidance Ministry of Finance, National Bureau of Statistics survey in 2003 suppose the Probationary Regulations on Standards for SMEs , such as shown in control panel 2.Table 2 The SME criterion of chinaaIndustriesFirm sizeEmployees ( No. of individual )Gross saless per twelvemonth ( 10,000 of RMB/EURO )As driftss ( 10,000 of RMB/EURO )IndustrySmall& lt 300& lt 3000/290& lt four hundred0/387 metier3002000300030000/2902900400040000/3873868ConstructionSmall& lt 600& lt 3000/290& lt 4000/387Medium6003000300030000/2902900WholesalingSmall& lt 100& lt 3000/290Medium100200300030000/2902900Retail employmentSmall& lt 100& lt 1000/97Medium100500100015000/971451 transportation systemSmall& lt 500& lt 3000/290Medium5003000300030000/2902900Postal servicesSmall& lt 400& lt 3000/290Medium4001000300030000/2902900Hotel & A provi dingSmall& lt 400& lt 3000/290Medium400800300015000/29015413. finisIn drumhead, by comparing of the SMEs criterion between China and German can pull the undermentioned decisionsFirst, the SMEs criterion of China is contrary from Germany, except the criterion of figure of employees, with entire assets and rough revenues of three commonly are utilizing international indexs, industry indexs as standards for categorization of endeavors with Chinese features. In the standard demands of the seven industries, the primary industry and tertiary industry is non included. The major difference between dissimilar industries is the figure of employees.a? . Business commition public presentation comparing between China and Germany1. Business public presentation of Germany SMEsAt the destination of 2005, the figure of SMEs is 99.7 % aof entire figure of endeavors in Germany has reached 33.8 million of taxation revenues, in the terminal of 2004 micro-enterprises ( less than nine workers a nd gross revenues in 2 million euros or less ) ocuppy 81 % of SMEs, making 18.2 % of entire employment. By the terminal of 2005 the gross revenues of German SMEs achieved 39.1 % of entire, catering 70.9 % of employment by the terminal 2004 the added value created 46.7 % , 51.5 % of investings, exports of 66.4 % .The learning of SMEs in Germany has a cook difference between parts and industries. There is a rapid develop of west Germany SMEs. German SMEs has an absolute advantage in the agribusiness, forestry and piscaries, make, qualifying and supply industry. Among them, little and medium endeavors occupy 94 % of all agricultural endeavors, 85 % of all building endeavors, adjustment and catering industry, 89 % , services 60 % .a2. Business public presentation of Chinese SMEsSince 1997, SMEs have been turning quickly in China after politics declared that the private sector is an of import portion for the state s economic development. The figure of Small and medium endeavors in late 2006 range 42 million, busying more than 99 % of the entire figure of enterprisesa . At the terminal of 2002 the figure of Micro-enterprises ( less than nine workers ) reached 23.5 million, busying 56 % of the full little and bonnie endeavors. Among them, micro-enterprises create 26.8 % of employment for entire registered labora? . During the tenth five-years plan period, little and comely industrial endeavors reached about 28 % mean annual growing esteem of value-added, created 60 % of concluding goods and services and about 50 % of taxa . SMEs have become the headspring channel for spread outing employment, supplying more than 75 % of urban occupations, and more than 80 % of fired workers were re-employed in little and fair endeavors, the bulk of migrant workers are working in little and modal(a) endeavors. A group of powerful SMEs explore the international market really actively.The breeding from the Ministry of Commerce shown that by the terminal of 2005, in t hat location is 88 % of endeavors investing is SMES in Africa a? . Chinese SME occupied 68 % of exports in late 2005 a? .The development of SMEs in China is besides evidently differences differences between parts and industries. SMEs are located in the eastern part, finickyly the southeasterly coastal countries of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Guangdong, Shandong, Shanghai and Beijing a? .Harmonizing to culture take into accountd by China s Economic Development Index for SMEs , the fastest improving industry is the power, turgidness and H2O production and supply sectors and the index of interrupting is 66.76 % The piece is the building industry, for 66.09 % and 3rd is information transmittal, computing weapon services and package industry, which is 65.92 % and the last is the fabrication sector with 63.22 % . In 1993, the norm registered ceiling of little and sightly endeavors is RMB 286,000, in 1995 is RMB 40 million, in 2002 it grow to RMB 2.5 million a .Because the deficiency of statistical informations for Chinese SMEs failure appreciate, there is a unsmooth estimation, un lucky person rate of Chinese SMEs after the brass in 3 to 5 old ages is every bit advanced as 50 % a .Because deficiency of statistical informations of Chinese SMEs patoisruptcy rate. A unsmooth estimation, confide buildingruptcy rate of Chinese SMEs after the constitution in 3 to 5 old ages is every bit high as 50 % a .3. DecisionIn drumhead, through the comparative of little and average endeavors runing public presentation survey between China and Germany, the undermentioned decisions can be drawn.First, whether in the developing China, or in the developed Germany, little and average endeavors play a prima function in economic development, with the addition exports and make the new occupations. It stabilizes and be the hardcore for economic development and social development. However, referable to the particular background of China s loss economic system, the SME absorb a medium-large figure of discharged workers and excess countrified labour might who fired by the state-owned endeavors.Regional is the second ground for the differences between the development of SMEs in both states. The principal(prenominal) difference in Germany is because it divided into East and West. In China, it is because of the coastal countries and inland countries. Therefore, the development of little and average endeavors and regional degrees of economic development are well-nigh linked.Third, collect to the lower enceinte ratio, Chinese and German SMEs both have a high rate of commitruptcy.a? . A comparative Study of Chinese and German SME financial intermediation1. German SME reinforcementThe top dog resource for SMEs loaning is from margin deposit money boxss, which is about 44.8 % inwardly the entire loans, 20.3 % from the co-operative believess, 20.2 % from the private Bankss ( Deutsche Bank, Commerz blaspheme, Dresdner Bank and Post assert ) . This symmetry of loaning does non bowdlerize practically in the market portion for a long clip already.There is a pass relationship for the application of banking concern loans between the roaring and the direction of the house. If the gross revenues are less than 100 1000000s euro, the rejection rate for the application of loans reaches 34.7 % . However, if the gross revenues are over 5000 million euro, the rejection rate is merely about 6.6 % .a?Harmonizing to the psychoanalyse for the rejection of bank loans, 49.3 % of houses are unable to supply absolves or collateral, 46.8 % is because of the deficiency of free nifty and there is 36 % for the alterations in banking insurance insurance.With the development of the bully market and the banking system in Germany, there are some alterations for reenforcement within SMEs( 1 ) . the standardisation of send-off balcony financial support reduces the price and the simile is increasing in the championship market. The German nu mber one balcony financial support market becomes the 2nd largest market and the first is United Kingdom. With the addition of the first balcony supporting, the houses are able to increase their ain smashing ratios, thereby increasing the sum of external pay to broaden the springs of accompaniment.( 2 ) . the plus securitization and private capital investing has became the important resources for the accompaniment in German through the rise in capital market.CLOs Collateralized give Obligations is issued by the bank for the plus securitization in SME. The German Reconstruction bank, KfW Bankengruppe, has developed PROMISE for comprehensive merchandise job. This market in Germany developed quickly and the trading sum reached 20 gazillion euro for the first 6 months in 2006. The SME loan securitization market development allow for take the connexion between the traditional and sophisticated banking establishment. This helps the SME s funding and greatly elevate the liqu idness, credential of dealing and profitabiliy for Bankss.2. Chinese SMEs FinancingIn the creative activity Bank study about China s investing environment, they compared with some other Asiatic states and shown China s SMEs are confronting a more serious apprehension restraint. In 2000, single and private endeavors received short loans merely, by all fiscal establishments to 1 % .The possessor of the portion of ain capital funding pass on be reduced as the graduated table of concern rise. round-scale endeavors ( with figure of employees from 100 to 500 people ) funding from the proprietor s ain financess accounted for 22 % but in less than 50 individuals is 45 % . If the proprietor s ain financess and well-kept net incomes are added as a beginning of funding within the figure of employees is less than 52 little concerns and 67 % of the financess is from the endogenous funding in more than 100 big endeavors, the per centum is 57 % . In add-on, the successful rate of obtain ing bank loans for the large-scale endeavors is clear more than the little endeavors. If the bank loans and financess received from the cracker-barrel cite co-ops as a amount of intermediation of financess from fiscal establishments, there is merely 8 % for the little concerns get financing while big endeavors are 27 % .. a?Professor Lin Hanchuan ( 2003 ) a?conducted two studies for the current state of affairs of SMEs in 1998. The first study showed that 75 % of surveyed venture capital funding comes chiefly from self-financing acquire bank loans, finance companies accounted for 53.5 % of them state-owned endeavors accounted for 94 % . Bank loans from state-owned banking establishments in the bulk, there are a little figure of corporate endeavors received loans from rural credit co-ops. And 25 % of private SMEs funding is from non-formal funding channels. The 2nd canvass for the first clip confusable consequences, 55 % of the surveyed endeavors to capital derived from the ego, 24 % of the surveyed companies 50 % of the working capital come from self-financing, merely 9 % of endeavors to capital come from bank loans.China Industrial and mercenary Federation and the China Private Economy Research Committee make five probes in 1993,1995,1997,2000 and 2002. Self-financing is the chief signifier of capital funding for SMEs, accounting for 65.5 % , bank loan funding is 21 % a? . In the 2002 study, 3258 was merely 23.4 % of SMEs surveyed by the funding Bankss and rural knowledge co-ops. Obtaining bank loans to finance companies, 30 % of the endeavors get bank loans for less than RBM 10 million, 73.4 % of endeavors less than RBM 100 million. 53.8 % of the companies with trouble in obtaining loans are the obstruction to enterprise development, one of the most of import factor a . Chinese SMEs using for bank loans, faced with three favoritism the self-possession of favoritism, size of favoritism and favoritism in the part. Harmonizing to the standard cor porate ownership for the types of endeavors, taking to the Bankss of the differential coefficient intervention of different ownership endeavors. With the increasing degrees of economic openness and regional favoritism, favoritism in ownership bit by bit replaced. In more developed countries, non-state-owned endeavors are more readily lendable for bank loans. Guangdong, for illustration, in 1999 for non-state economic system, portion of bank loans has exceeded the province economic system, accounting for 56 % in 2002 lifting to 65 % . Because of the size of SMEs is self-limited with the deficiency of applications for bank loans authorisations and collateral, hence, the smaller the size of the endeavor are more hard for bank loans from Bankss and other formal fiscal establishments, fiscal intermediation, which resulted in the graduated table of favoritism in bank loans.Table 3 Loans for SMEs gained from bank when establishedLoan sumSample proportionSample endeavorsLoan sumSample pr oportionSample endeavors& lt 0.53.6635305011.841130.512.41235010011.741131513.421281002004.514351011.7411220050015.5114810153.042950010003.143015209.0186& gt 10003.463320306.0562Entire100954SME loans among banking establishments in different and uneven development. For illustration, Sichuan Province, as of the terminal of 2007, three big state-owned commercialised message Bankss accounted for the state s little concern loans little concern loans to 50.31 per centum, but merely the bank s loans to 11.42 % while metropolis commercial Bankss and recognition bureau issued little concern loans accounted for 23.84 % , but it is the bank s loan balance of 48.48 % a? . Large state-owned commercial Bankss are merely developing micro-credit operations from the central office with the particular demands and more repressive conditions, so the enthusiasm is non high.3. Decision( 1 ) there is widespread trouble in obtaining loans for SMEs, non merely is a passage economic system like China, that is, the economically developed in Germany every bit good. endogenic funding is the chief beginning of SME funding, bank funding accounted for 26.3 % in Germany, but in China, this proportion is much smaller. ( 2 ) SMEs using for bank loans to the trouble is due chiefly to the deficiency of trade protection or collateral, justice capital is unequal. However, in Germany, the banking sector SME loaning alterations are hard for particular grounds in China it is the ownership restraints. ( 3 ) funding merchandises offered by fiscal establishments in a individual, hard to run into the funding demands of SMEs in specific variegation. In China, fiscal establishments, the chief funding merchandises offered by bank loans. However, in Germany, in add-on to the traditional bank loan funding outside the capital, first balcony funding and securitization funding portion on the rise. ( 4 ) Germany there is a clear division of labour between Bankss, organizing the major banking establishmen ts for SMEs, sedimentation Bankss and concerted Bankss. Local operation of these Bankss are work Bankss, has carried out the comparative advantages of SMEs. In China, about all of the banking establishments have developed little and average endeavors financing concern, nevertheless, big state-owned commercial Bankss and deficiency of motive. Fourth, China and Germany Comparative Study of the social service system for SMEsSME development requires non merely fiscal intermediation of fiscal services, but besides a assortment of security, military ranks, advice, information and engineering, societal services. Social service system, the building and flawlessness is a requirement for rapid development of SMEs.a? . Comparison of societal service between Chinese and Germany SMEs1. Germany s societal service system for SMEsGermany s societal service system for SMEs is comparatively healthy. Auditing organic structures, accounting houses and banking establishments depict SMEs with the chi ef information services. In Germany, the chief bank for SMEs, non merely in corporate finance has played a prima function, but besides provide SMEs with a assortment of confer withing, information, and assist them acquire a development program and other intercessor services besides play an unreplaceable function. German SME recognition warrant system for the development of earlier, early in 1954 set up its first guaranteed Bankss. Presently, in Germany, each province guaranteed at least one bank. After more than 50 old ages of development, Garanti Bank has established a sound recognition evaluation system, a major consideration factors such as corporate fiscal factors ( fiscal place, net incomes, and so forthtera ) on their ain qualities ( director s direction ability, concern history ) , enterprise development state of affairs ( merchandises, markets, etc. ) , and historical records ( recognition and non-compliance records, etc. ) . Garanti Bank secured rates at 1.75 % 2.5 % , rate accommodations are chiefly based on the industry in which companies, merchandises and markets, risk-related. Germany guarantees bank loans to bank-specific recognition risk-sharing ratio of 82. Occurs when the secured bank loan losingss, the presidential term has to bear the loss of 65 % , the loaning bank to take hazards to 7 % , the security establishments to presume the hazard of 28 % . In add-on, the Garanti Bank asked to command the loss rate of 4 % or less, the excess by increasing the guaranteed rate, loss ratio or the government activity to increase investing write-down, owned, etc.. At nowadays, single warrants Bankss mean loss rate of about 1 % .SMEs have to push down down toll borne by the administrative scrutiny and blessing. In 2003 the German authorities, harmonizing to a study undertaken in the endeavor 460 sorts of administrative scrutiny and blessing costs, borne by SMEs accounted for 80 % . SMEs in order to cut down the costs borne by the administrative scrutiny and blessing, the German authorities published the cut down the load on SMEs law of nature . Among them, a really of import step is the criterionQuasi-oriented little and average endeavors to set up, alteration, confer withing services, systems and procedures and processs, to better and heighten services at a pep pill and quality. In add-on, when the constitution of little and average endeavors by simplifying administrative scrutiny and blessing processs, set up an electronic enrollment processs to enable endeavors to put up every bit long as online enrollment can be completed within a few yearss.2. China s development of a societal service system for SMEs( 1 ) Government better the societal service system for SMEs, the stairs the Chinese authorities attaches great richness to the development of SMEs, the determination in the Eleventh Five-Year during the implementation of the SME development undertakings. This is China s SME development plan of action, includin g bettering the societal service system for SMEs and improves germane(predicate) Torahs and ordinances, heighten the ability of scientific discipline and engineering origination of SMEs in nine steps a? .Laws and ordinances in the edifice of little and average endeavors, the Chinese authorities has promulgated the SME Promotion Law of The People s Republic of China the State Council on Encouraging, documentation and steering the person and private and other non-public economic development in a figure of sentiments , and form a SME Promotion Law as the nucleus, the relevant supporting paperss to back up the publicity of SMEs and non-public economic development of Torahs, ordinances and policy model system to supply SMEs with a sound external environment for puting the butt for the jurisprudence. The security system, China has started the pattern of SMEs recognition warrant in 1992, by 2006, the National SME recognition warrant establishments more than 1,000, a sum of 28.7 b illion fund-raising, the cumulative sum of loan warrant 120 billion kwais, the cumulative security companies 5 10000.a In the practised support for SMEs, the Chinese authorities chose Qingdao, Hefei and other metropoliss, feature with technological systems, established a city-backed, engineering invention services for SMEs, regional, professional engineering centre, while set uping and assorted types of technological invention and improved services.( 2 ) the societal service system for SMEs, although the Chinese SMEs in the development of the societal service system has go through from abrasion, from little to big rapid development, but in time necessitate to foster better and hone. The chief jobs areServicess, higher costs. Banking Bureau in Sichuan SME study, the high cost of societal services is to forestall the funding of SMEs, a really of import ground. Small concerns in the procedure of using for bank loans may hold to pay, including audits, indirect appraisals, mortgage enrollment, security, notary, insurance, legal advice, recognition evaluation, concern enquiries, and other disbursals more than 10 points, its amalgamate disbursal ratio may be up to 10 % . perspicacity and mortgage enrollment fees occupy a big proportion in bank loan. Mortgage registered in the duplicate of the enrollment, rating and fees, and charges unavoidable by the Government has non purely enforced and others are caused by redundant direct cause of the high cost a? .System is non perfect. Management of bank loans because of the high cost of a deficiency of societal recognition direction system, banking, industry and commercialism, revenue enhancement and other societal service bureaus have non yet set up a unified recognition direction system.Government in SME recognition warrant system to step in excessively much in the physical process of capital, operational construction and direction of many jobs. For illustration, many local authoritiess funded the constitution of fiscal security bureaus, on the one manus a erstwhile shot of financess, deficiency of wages mechanism, warrant financess to little the other manus, the deficiency of commercial operation, can non fulfill the modify demands of SMEs. Even in the U.S. , Japan and other large-scale government-funded national, policy loans guaranteed no more than 10 % of SME loans. Therefore, the SME policy entirely can non vouch security, but besides to play a private capital and commercial security function.3. Decision( 1 ) Germany s societal system is sound and SME services, including accounting, confer withing, scrutinizing, information and other societal service bureaus. Banks non merely provide fiscal services to SMEs, but besides includes other information and consulting services. Chinese SMEs in the service of societal system, the building and betterment, the biggest job is how to better the warrant system for little and average endeavors.( 2 ) The German authorities attaches great importance to the development of SMEs, but how the Government will play a back uping SME development, the two states have important differences. The German authorities wage go to to utilize of indirect, economic and legal agencies, such as revenue enhancement policy, through the national policy Bankss indirect fiscal support, to set up a incorporate information system, standardisation of the Government s assorted administrative scrutiny and blessing systems and processs. In add-on, the German authorities by supplying more instruction and preparation chances and better the capacity of endeavor directors to accomplish long-run and sustainable development of SMEs. The Chinese authorities in advancing the development of SMEs in the greater usage of the direct administrative steps and intercessions. For illustration, fiscal investors to set up a recognition warrant system for little and average endeavors, direct operation and direction of recognition warrant establishments, direct fiscal subsidie s.( 3 ) The German Government has set up export-oriented SMEs in specific administrative and societal service system. By the China Enterprise paygrade Association in the export-oriented SMEs in the survey points out that China s deficiency of specialised concern services for export-oriented societal system. In the surveyed endeavors, 51 % of export endeavors call for to finance and consultative servicesa? .a . Enlightenment1. Chinese SMEs are little, but employed more workers, this is the alone consequence of the development phases and conditions. Due to the passage of Economic and societal system, China s SMEs faces an more particular development environment. To work out the specific jobs of SMEs development in China, we d break larning from international experience of other advanced, but besides need to considerate with the particular conditions of China.2. Chinese SMEs criterions require timely updates and uninterrupted polish.3. Chinese SMEs faced with the general trouble in obtaining loans, which are an of import beginning of funding.4. Chinese SMEs warrants system for the commercial operations need imperative development. Guarantee bureaus need to set up a sound capital injection mechanism, modulate the investing of authorities financess and compensation mechanisms to accomplish the variegation of support beginnings. Learn from the successful experience of Germany, the debut of risk-sharing warrant establishments and compensation mechanisms.5. The constitution of SMEs exporting to China s societal system of professional services. With the uninterrupted development of China s export-oriented economic system, export portion of gross national merchandise is lifting, it should better the export-oriented SMEs, including finance, and consulting, international operations required a assortment of particular services. The Government should put up specifically for the export-oriented SMEs, service platforms, and simplification of administrative scrutiny and bl essing processs, hastening the blessing procedure.6. Rationally maintain the authorities s function in SME development. foreign experience tells us that the Government should utilize economic and legal and other indirect means to cut down the direct administrative intercession and capital subsidy, thereby heightening the effectivity of policy capital punishment to advance sustainable growing of SMEs.